Halorubrum kocurii
| Halorubrum kocurii | |
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| Species: | H. kocurii
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| Halorubrum kocurii Gutiérrez et al., 2008[1]
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Halorubrum kocurii is a halophilic archaean belonging to the genus Halorubrum. This genus contains a total of thirty-seven different species, all of which thrive in high-salinity environments.[2] Archaea belonging to this genus are typically found in hypersaline environments due to their halophilic nature, specifically in solar salterns.[3] Halorubrum kocurii is a rod-shaped, Gram-negative archaeon.[2] Different from its closest relatives, Halorubrum kocurii is non-motile and contains no flagella or cilia.[2] This archaeon thrives at high pH levels, high salt concentrations, and moderate temperatures.[2] It has a number of close relatives, including Halorubrum aidingense, Halorubrum lacusprofundi, and more.[2]
Discovery[edit]
Halorubrum kocurii was first discovered in 2003 by M.C. Gutierrez and their team.[2] Their aim was to isolate a halophilic archaeon that had not yet been identified.[2] To do so, a sample was taken from the saline lake Lake Bagaejinnor in Inner Mongolia, China, in September of 2003.[2] The sample was serially diluted and plated on plates with various mediums, including NaCl, MgCl₂, NaBr, etc.[2] Eventually, a pure culture of the strain BG-1 (Halorubrum kocurri) was obtained and used for testing under which conditions the strain would see optimal growth.[2] The researchers phenotypically characterized the strain following the guidelines of the minimal standards for the description of novel organisms in the order Halobacteriales.[2] These guidelines were developed by researchers Oren, Ventosa, and Grant in 1997 and include tests of motility, morphological classification, nitrate reduction, starch hydrolysis, and more.[4] Gutierrez and their team performed these tests on the BG-1 strain and its closest relatives in order to compare the results and determine the validity of Halorubrum kocurri as its own species.[2]
Taxonomy[edit]
Halorubrum kocurii belongs to the domain Archaea, the kingdom Euryarchaeota, the phylum Euryarchaeota, the class Halobacteria, the order Haloferacales, the family Halorubraceae, the genus Halorubrum, and the species Halorubrum kocurii.[1] The Halorubrum genus currently consists of thirty-seven different species, making it the largest genus belonging to the Halobacteria class.[5] Species belonging to this genus are typically rod-shaped and Gram-negative, and all species are aerobic chemoorganotrophs with some being motile.[5] These microbes tend to be red or orange in color due to the abundance of bacterioruberin carotenoids found within them, but some are observed to be colorless.[5] All species belonging to the genus Halorubrum are extremely halophilic and thrive best in environments with a concentration of NaCl between 1.0 and 5.2 M, but these microbes can grow at a variety of pH levels, with the genus containing both neutrophilic and alkaliphilic species.[5] Through 16s rRNA sequencing, Halorubrum kocurii has been documented to have many close relatives, including Halorubrum aidingense, Halorubrum saccharovorum, Halorubrum lacusprofundi, and Halorubrum lipolyticum.[2]
Relatives[edit]
The closest relative of Halorubrum kocurii is Halorubrum aidingense with 98.8% genetic similarity.[2] This organism was discovered in a saline lake called Aiding Lake in Xinjiang, China.[6] This organism is rod-shaped, Gram-negative, and motile.[6] It grows optimally at temperatures between 40 °C (104 °F) and 42 °C (108 °F), a pH level of 7.5, and a salt concentration of 15.2%.[6] Halorubrum saccharovorum is an organism that is closely related to Halorubrum kocurii with a genetic similarity of 98.6%.[2] This organism produces nitrite from nitrate without the production of gas.[7] It is motile and grows optimally at a temperature of 50 °C (122 °F).[7] The next closest relative of Halorubrum kocurri is Halorubrum lacusprofundi with a genetic similarity of 98.6%.[2] This archaeon was isolated from Deep Lake in Antarctica and is extremely halophilic.[8] The organism is unlike some in its genus due to its categorization as a haloalkaliphile and not a neutrophile.[8] Furthermore, this archaeon is considered special due to its ability to grow at low temperatures.[8] The next closest relative of Halorubrum kocurii is an archaeon called Halorubrum lipolyticum. This halophilic archaeon was first isolated from Aiby Salt Lake in Xinjiang, China.[9] This organism is rod-shaped, motile, and Gram-negative, and has been known to have the ability to hydrolyze lipids.[9] This archaeon grows optimally at NaCl concentrations of 1.7 to 4.8 M and temperatures between 45 °C (113 °F) and 48 °C (118 °F).[9]
Physiology[edit]
Halorubrum kocurii is a flat, rod-shaped halophile with an average length between 2–5 μm (7.9×10−5–0.000197 in) and a width between .9–1.1 μm (3.5×10−5–4.3×10−5 in).[2] Halorubrum requires a high pH at around 6.0–9.0 and a hypersaline environment at 2.5–3.4 M NaCl for sustained growth.[2] To adapt to a high salt concentration, Halorubrum kocurii contains high amounts of polar lipids in its membrane structure.[10] This also provides heat protection for Halorubrum kocurii, which are found to grow in a range from 22–55 °C (72–131 °F).[2] Halorubrum kocurii also requires an aerobic environment and is capable of aerobic respiration by oxidizing organic compounds for energy.[2] Halorubrum kocurii is highly non-motile and contains no flagella or motor structures.[2] Halorubrum kocurii can produce pigment in response to using oxidase for aerobic metabolism.[2] Halorubrum kocurii also uses enzymes to protect itself from its hypersaline environment.[2] Halorubrum kocurii uses catalase to break down hydrogen peroxide and urease to break down ammonia.[11]
Genomics[edit]
The entire genome of Halorubrum kocurii has not been sequenced. From 16s rRNA gene sequencing, Halorubrum kocurii was found to be evolutionary close to other Halorubrum species.[9] From DNA–DNA hybridization studies, Halorubrum kocurii also contained high DNA–DNA similarity to these species: Halorubrum aidingense, Halorubrum lacusprofundi, and Halorubrum lipolyticum.[9] The genomic DNA of Halorubrum kocurii contains 69.4% guanine and cytosine content.[12] Halorubrum kocurii's high GC (guanine and cystone)-content protects them against hypersaline solutions.[12]
Metabolism[edit]
Halorubrum kocurii is a chemoorganotroph and uses organic compounds for energy and carbon sources.[2] These compounds include simple sugars and amino acids.[2] Halorubrum kocurii also conducts aerobic respiration by using oxygen in its electron transport chain to produce ATP.[2] Halorubrum kocurii is capable of using urease to break down urea into ammonia and carbon dioxide for nitrogen sources.[2] Halorubrum kocurii can also break down hydrogen peroxide and other highly reactive oxygen species using catalase.[2]
Biotechnological application[edit]
Halorubrum kocurii has the potential to be adopted into many industrial applications, including the food and pharmaceutical industries.[2] Halorubrum kocurii's ability to produce oxidase, catalase, and urease can be used to stabilize and extend the shelf life of many products.[2] Halorubrum kocurii's enzymes is capable of degrading pollutants.[2] Halorubrum kocurii also has a high tolerance to temperatures, pH, and salt concentrations.[2] Halorubrum kocurii has the potential to work as fertilizers and stimulants for growth in saline agriculture environments.[2]
References[edit]
- ^ a b "IRMNG - Halorubrum McGenity & Grant, 1996 emend. Oren, Arahal & Ventosa, 2009". Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera. 7 May 2024. Archived from the original on 7 February 2023.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag Gutierrez, M. C.; Castillo, A. M.; Pagaling, E.; Heaphy, S.; Kamekura, M.; Xue, Y.; Ma, Y.; Cowan, D. A.; Jones, B. E.; Grant, W. D.; Ventosa, A. (1 September 2008). "Halorubrum kocurii sp. nov., an archaeon isolated from a saline lake". International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology. 58 (9): 2031–2035. doi:10.1099/ijs.0.65840-0. Archived from the original on 16 April 2024.
- ^ Trigui, Hana; Masmoudi, Salma; Brochier-Armanet, Céline; Maalej, Sami; Dukan, Sam (2011). "Characterization of Halorubrum sfaxense sp. nov., a New Halophilic Archaeon Isolated from the Solar Saltern of Sfax in Tunisia". International Journal of Microbiology. 2011: 1–8. doi:10.1155/2011/240191. PMC 3132631. PMID 21754938.
- ^ Oren, A.; Ventosa, A.; Grant, W. D. (1 January 1997). "Proposed Minimal Standards for Description of New Taxa in the Order Halobacteriales". International Journal of Systematic Bacteriology. 47 (1): 233–238. doi:10.1099/00207713-47-1-233.
- ^ a b c d Oren, Aharon (14 September 2015). Whitman, William B. (ed.). Bergey's Manual of Systematics of Archaea and Bacteria. doi:10.1002/9781118960608. ISBN 978-1-118-96060-8.
- ^ a b c Podstawka, Adam. "Halorubrum aidingense 31-hong | Type strain | DSM 23496, CGMCC 1.2670, JCM 13560, KCTC 4073 | BacDiveID:5952". bacdive.dsmz.de. Archived from the original on 17 December 2021.
- ^ a b Tomlinson, GA; Hochstein, LI (April 1976). "Halobacterium saccharovorum sp. nov., a carbohydrate-metabolizing, extremely halophilic bacterium". Canadian Journal of Microbiology. 22 (4): 587–91. doi:10.1139/m76-087. PMID 1260548.
- ^ a b c Anderson, Iain J.; DasSarma, Priya; Lucas, Susan; Copeland, Alex; Lapidus, Alla; Del Rio, Tijana Glavina; Tice, Hope; Dalin, Eileen; Bruce, David C.; Goodwin, Lynne; Pitluck, Sam; Sims, David; Brettin, Thomas S.; Detter, John C.; Han, Cliff S.; Larimer, Frank; Hauser, Loren; Land, Miriam; Ivanova, Natalia; Richardson, Paul; Cavicchioli, Ricardo; DasSarma, Shiladitya; Woese, Carl R.; Kyrpides, Nikos C. (10 September 2016). "Complete genome sequence of the Antarctic Halorubrum lacusprofundi type strain ACAM 34". Standards in Genomic Sciences. 11 (1). doi:10.1186/s40793-016-0194-2. PMID 27617060.
- ^ a b c d e Cui, Heng-Lin; Tohty, Dilbr; Zhou, Pei-Jin; Liu, Shuang-Jiang (1 July 2006). "Halorubrum lipolyticum sp. nov. and Halorubrum aidingense sp. nov., isolated from two salt lakes in Xin-Jiang, China". International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology. 56 (7): 1631–1634. doi:10.1099/ijs.0.64305-0. PMID 16825640.
- ^ Zhang, Wen-Jiao; Cui, Heng-Lin (June 2014). "Halorubrum salinum sp. nov., isolated from a marine solar saltern". Archives of Microbiology. 196 (6): 395–400. doi:10.1007/s00203-014-0975-1. PMID 24643450.
- ^ Gonzalez, Carmen; Gutierrez, Carmen; Ramirez, C. (1 June 1978). "Halobacterium vallismortis sp. nov. An amylolytic and carbohydrate-metabolizing, extremely halophilic bacterium". Canadian Journal of Microbiology. 24 (6): 710–715. doi:10.1139/m78-119. PMID 667737.
- ^ a b Marmur, J.; Doty, P. (2 November 1961). "Determination of the base composition of deoxyribonucleic acid from its thermal denaturation temperature". Journal of Molecular Biology. 5 (1). Massachusetts, United States: Harvard University (published 6 May 2009): 109–118. doi:10.1016/s0022-2836(62)80066-7. PMID 14470099.