Pseudotranslation in The Lord of the Rings

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A pseudotranslation is a text written as if it had been translated from a foreign language. J. R. R. Tolkien made use of pseudotranslation in The Lord of the Rings for two reasons: to help resolve the linguistic puzzle he had accidentally created by using real-world languages within his legendarium, and to lend realism by supporting a found manuscript conceit to frame his story.

Effectively, he pretends to be an editor and translator who has received an ancient manuscript, the Red Book of Westmarch, written in Westron, the Common Speech of Middle-earth, annotated and edited by many hands, which he decides to translate into English. The manuscript contains names and words from other languages, some of them related to Westron; he translates those into languages related to English, namely Old English and Old Norse.

Context[edit]

Further information: Philology and Middle-earth and Pseudotranslation

From his schooldays, J. R. R. Tolkien was, in the words of his biographer John Garth, "effusive about philology"; his schoolfriend Rob Gilson called him "quite a great authority on etymology".[1] Tolkien was a professional philologist, a scholar of comparative and historical linguistics. He was especially familiar with Old English and related languages. He remarked to the poet and The New York Times book reviewer Harvey Breit that "I am a philologist and all my work is philological"; he explained to his American publisher Houghton Mifflin that this was meant to imply that his work was "all of a piece, and fundamentally linguistic in inspiration. ... The invention of languages is the foundation. The 'stories' were made rather to provide a world for the languages than the reverse. To me a name comes first and the story follows."[T 1]

A pseudotranslation is a text written as if it had been translated from a foreign language, even though no foreign language original exists. The practice began in medieval chivalric romance, and was common in 16th-century Spain, in works like the c. 1508 Amadís de Gaula; it was mocked by Cervantes in his 1605 Don Quixote.[2]

An accidental trap[edit]

In his 1937 children's book The Hobbit, Tolkien used English as the language of the hobbit protagonist, Bilbo Baggins, and he was able to converse in this language with the other characters. The Dwarves however had names in Old Norse forms.[3] Tolkien took the names of 12 of the 13 dwarves – excluding Balin – that he used in The Hobbit (along with the wizard Gandalf's name) from the Old Norse Völuspá in the Elder Edda. For example, Thorin Oakenshield is the leader of the group of Dwarves. The name "Thorin" (Þorinn) appears in stanza 12, where it is used for a dwarf, while the name "Oakenshield" (Eikinskjaldi) is in stanza 13.[4][5]

Tolkien borrowed Old Norse Dwarf-names for The Hobbit[4]
Dvergatal Translation (borrowed names in bold)

11.... Nár ok Náinn Nípingr, Dáinn
Bívurr, Bávurr, Bömburr, Nóri,
...
12. "Veggr ok Gandalfr, Vindalfr, Þorinn,
Þrár ok Þráinn, Þekkr, Litr ok Vitr,

11.... Nar and Nain, | Niping, Dain,
Bifur, Bofur, | Bombur, Nori,
...
12. Vigg and Gandalf | Vindalf, Thorin,
Thror and Thrain | Thekk, Lit and Vit,

The use of Norse names was left unexplained in The Hobbit, but when Dwarves reappeared in The Lord of the Rings, it presented an immediate problem: the Dwarves would have had names in their own language, Khuzdul. Tolkien needed to find a solution that would make names in Norse and Khuzdul – one real language, one invented – coexist.[6]

A solution[edit]

Deciding on pseudotranslation[edit]

When writing The Lord of the Rings (1954–55), a sequel to The Hobbit, Tolkien came up with the literary device of pseudotranslation, using real languages to "translate" fictional languages.[7] He pretended to have translated the original language Westron (named Adûni in Westron) or Common Speech (Sôval Phârë, in Westron) into English.[3]

In a 1954 letter, Tolkien stated that the pseudotranslation issue "has given me much thought. It seems seldom regarded by other creators of imaginary worlds, however gifted as narrators (such as Eddison). But then I am a philologist".[T 2] He then stated that "English cannot have been the language of any people of that time",[T 2] and explained his pseudotranslation process:[8] "What I have, in fact done, is to equate the Westron or wide-spread Common Speech of the Third Age with English; and translate everything, including names such as The Shire, that was in the Westron into English terms".[T 2]

In Appendix F II "On Translation", Tolkien wrote that "The Westron names were as a rule translations of older names: as Rivendell, Hoarwell, Silverlode, Langstrand". He went on to explain why he had done this:[T 3]

[I wished to preserve] the contrast between a wide-spread language... and the living remains of far older and more reverend tongues. All names if merely transcribed would seem to modern readers equally remote: for instance, if the Elvish name Imladris and the Westron translation Karningul had both been left unchanged.[T 3]

Winchester as Camelot: interior of the Great Hall of Winchester Castle, with what has been claimed to be King Arthur's Round Table

Tolkien gave as a picture of the reason for this approach a sentence mapping Middle-earth to the real world, though with the inclusion of the semi-mythical figure of King Arthur:[T 3]

But to refer to Rivendell as Imladris was as if one now was to speak of Winchester as Camelot, except that the identity was certain, while in Rivendell there still dwelt a lord of renown far older than Arthur would be, were he still king at Winchester today.[T 3]

Allan Turner remarks that this further blurs the already confused distinction between fiction and reality:[9]

Turner's analysis of Tolkien's pseudotranslation analogy[T 3][9]
Attribute The Lord of the Rings Analogy
Place Rivendell Winchester
Located in Fictional Middle-earth England
In language English, representing Westron English
Formerly called Imladris Camelot
Former language Sindarin Medieval French
In time An earlier age of Middle-earth Mythical version of England
Led by Elrond King Arthur
Status A living Elf-lord, who founded the place in the Second Age, thousands of years before the War of the Ring, in the fiction A long-dead King of men, according to legend

Complex implications[edit]

The device of rendering an imaginary language with a real one was carried further by rendering:[3]

Tolkien wrote: "Languages, however, that were related to the Westron presented a special problem. I turned them into forms of speech related to English. Since the Rohirrim are represented as recent comers out of the North, and users of an archaic Mannish language relatively untouched by the influence of Eldarin, I have turned their names into forms like ... Old English."[T 2][8]

  • Tolkien accidentally created a linguistic puzzle by using three different pseudo-translated Germanic languages for peoples in his story.[10]
    Tolkien accidentally created a linguistic puzzle by using three different pseudo-translated Germanic languages for peoples in his story.[10]

Furthermore, to parallel the Celtic substratum in England, he used Old Welsh names to render the Dunlendish names of Buckland Hobbits (e.g., Meriadoc for Kalimac).[T 3] The device of linguistic mapping allowed Tolkien to avoid having to invent new names in Khuzdul for all his Dwarves, while simultaneously explaining the book's use of Modern English for Westron.[6] Further, it saved him from having to work out the details of Westron grammar or vocabulary in any detail. He does give some examples of Westron words in Appendix F II to The Lord of the Rings, where he summarizes its origin and role as Middle-earth's lingua franca:[T 3][11]

The language represented in this history by English was the Westron or 'Common Speech' of the West-lands of Middle-earth in the Third Age. In the course of that age it had become the native language of nearly all the speaking-peoples (save the Elves) who dwelt within the bounds of the old kingdoms of Arnor and Gondor ... At the time of the War of the Ring at the end of the age these were still its bounds as a native tongue. (Appendix F)[T 3]

Rohirric is represented in The Lord of the Rings by Old English because Tolkien chose to make the relationship between Rohirric and the Common Speech similar to that of Old English and Modern English.[T 4]

  • Tolkien uses the mapping of Old English to Modern English to represent the mapping of Rohirric to Westron.[T 4]
    Tolkien uses the mapping of Old English to Modern English to represent the mapping of Rohirric to Westron.[T 4]

This solution makes the combination of languages used in The Lord of the Rings exceptionally complex, presenting a substantial challenge to those translating The Lord of the Rings into other languages.[12]

Lost in translation[edit]

Multiple homonyms[edit]

Tolkien stated in The Two Towers that the name Orthanc had "by design or chance" two meanings. In Sindarin it meant "Mount Fang", while in the language of Rohan he said it meant "Cunning Mind".[T 5] The author Robert Foster notes that orþanc genuinely does mean "cunning" in Old English, so that the homonym Tolkien had in mind was between Sindarin and Old English, that is, translated or represented Rohirric. Foster comments that since it would be unlikely for a homonym also to exist between these two languages and actual Rohirric, and for the Old English and the Rohirric to be synonyms as well, Tolkien had made an error.[13]

Multilingual inscription[edit]

In The Fellowship of the Ring, the company find Balin's tomb as they cross Moria on their quest.[T 6] The tomb is inscribed in Dwarf runes. Transliterated into Latin characters, this is seen to be a mixture of Old Norse names, Khuzdul, English, and a pejorative name in the Elvish language Sindarin, all written together as a doubled runic inscription. English, as the real-world language into which Westron was purportedly translated, could not exist in Middle-earth.[14]

Languages used in Balin's tomb inscription
Inscription Transcribed inscription Notes[14]

BALIN

FUNdINUL

UZBADKhAZADDÛMU

BALIN SƏN OV FUNDIN LORD OV MORIA

English name in Norse style, translation of a name in Khuzdul

Old Norse name, with Khuzdul -ul "son of" ending

Khuzdul phrase "Lord of Dwarrowdelf"

English phrase, with Sindarin name for Khazad-dûm

Supporting the frame story[edit]

Frame stories and found manuscripts[edit]

Further information: Tolkien's frame stories

A second reason for Tolkien to make use of pseudotranslation was to lend realism by supporting a found manuscript conceit; this in turn strengthened and lent consistency to the philological way Tolkien had chosen to frame his story.[9]

A frame story is a tale that encloses or frames the main story or set of stories. For example, in Mary Shelley's 1818 novel Frankenstein, the main story is framed by a fictional correspondence between an explorer and his sister, so as to present the story as if it were real.[15]

Tolkien used frame stories in his Middle-earth writings to make the works resemble a genuine mythology written and edited by many hands over a long period of time. He described in detail how his fictional characters wrote their books and transmitted them to others, and showed how later in-universe editors annotated the material.[16]

Multiple levels[edit]

Turner comments that elements of the frame story function at multiple levels; in particular, metatextual elements like the appendices "[treat] the world of the story as historical fact, at the same time [creating] for the reader the illusion of a direct link through time and space with his/her own world through the persona of the 'editor'".[9] For example:

Tolkien impersonates an editor writing factual explanatory notes on a historical text[T 3]
Note on three names: Hobbit, Gamgee, and Brandywine
Hobbit is an invention. In the Westron the word used, when this people was referred to at all, was banakil 'halfling'. But at this date the folk of the Shire and of Bree used the word kuduk, which was not found elsewhere. Meriadoc, however, actually records that the King of Rohan used the word kûd-dúkan 'hole-dweller'. Since, as has been noted, the Hobbits had once spoken a language closely related to that of the Rohirrim, it seems likely that kuduk was a worn-down form of kûd-dúkan. The latter I have translated, for reasons explained, by holbytla; and hobbit provides a word that might well be a worn-down form of holbytla, if that name had occurred in our own ancient language. ...

All of this paints a picture of the author as editor and translator, the text as a survival through long ages, and the events depicted as historical:[16][17]

Pseudotranslation supporting Tolkien's frame story[16][17]
Time Events Notes
Third Age The quest of Erebor
Bilbo Baggins writes his memoirs in Westron.
War of the Ring 		Pseudo-history conceit
The Hobbit
Further pseudo-history
Fourth Age Frodo Baggins writes his memoirs in Westron.
Others annotate the memoirs: the Red Book of Westmarch. 		The Lord of the Rings
Found manuscript conceit
Fifth Age ... more editing by more hands ... Pseudo-editor conceit
Sixth/Seventh Age The Tolkien 'editor' "translates" the works into English
(and a little Old Norse and Old English) 		Pseudo-translator conceit

"An echo of an echo"[edit]

All of this means that the published book has a complex structure, with many elements besides the main text. These effectively form a frame which expands upon the text, comments upon it, and helps to make it convincingly realistic.[9][8] Among these elements, Thomas Kullmann writes that the prologue "obviously imitates the non-fictional prose of nineteenth- and early twentieth-century ethnography" with its discussion of how "Hobbits are an unobtrusive but very ancient people..." and details of their habitual activities.[18] Further, the "Notes on Shire Records" imitate "works of historiography", while the appendices offer tables of what look like "historic data and linguistic notes."[18]

Tolkien commented on this metatextual process in one of his letters, writing that "It is, I suppose, fundamentally concerned with the problem of the relation of Art (and sub-creation) and Primary Reality".[T 7]

Vladimir Brljak notes Tolkien's praise of Beowulf in his lecture "Beowulf: The Monsters and the Critics", and cites Shippey's comment that Tolkien "felt a virtual identity of motive and of technique" with the Beowulf poet. That affinity, he writes, extended to creating an impression of depth, giving the feeling of "unattainable vistas" stretching back into the past. It also meant intentionally creating the feeling of receiving "an echo of an echo" (as Tolkien said in his lecture) by creating "an intricate metafictional structure". Brljak argues that this framework "is both the cornerstone and crowning achievement of Tolkien's mature literary work", and that the pseudo-editorial, pseudo-philological, and pseudo-translational apparatus contributes greatly to the effect.[8]

See also[edit]

References[edit]

Primary[edit]

  1. ^ Carpenter 2023, #165 to Houghton Mifflin, 30 June 1955
  2. ^ a b c d Carpenter 2023, #144 to Naomi Mitchison, 25 April 1954
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h i Tolkien 1955, Appendix F II, "On Translation"
  4. ^ a b Tolkien 2001, p. 8
  5. ^ Tolkien 1954, Book 3, chapter 8 "The Road to Isengard"
  6. ^ Tolkien 1954a, Book 2, chapter 5 "The Bridge of Khazad-dûm"
  7. ^ Carpenter 2023, #131 to Milton Waldman, late 1951, footnote

Secondary[edit]

  1. ^ Garth 2003, p. 16.
  2. ^ Eisenberg, Daniel [in Spanish] (1982) [1976]. "The Pseudo-Historicity of the Romances of Chivalry". Romanes of Chivalry in the Spanish Golden Age. first published in Quaderni Ibero-Americani, 45–46 (1975–76), pp. 253–259. Newark, Delaware: Juan de la Cuesta Hispanic Monographs. pp. 119–129. ISBN 0936388072.
  3. ^ a b c d e f Shippey 2005, pp. 131–133.
  4. ^ a b Evans 2013b, pp. 134–135.
  5. ^ Rateliff 2007, Volume 2 Return to Bag-End, Appendix 3
  6. ^ a b Fimi 2010, pp. 189–191.
  7. ^ Turner 2007, p. 330.
  8. ^ a b c d e Brljak 2010, pp. 1–34.
  9. ^ a b c d e Turner 2011a, p. 18.
  10. ^ Shippey 2005, pp. 131–133
  11. ^ Hemmi 2010, pp. 147–174.
  12. ^ Smith 2006, pp. 228–231, citing Turner 2005, "Philology and archaism"
  13. ^ a b Fimi 2010, pp. 191–192.
  14. ^ a b Kales, Josef (2010). "Appendix C: The Inscription on Balin's Tomb in Moria". Usage and meaning of extinct Germanic languages in the novels of JRR Tolkien (PDF). Charles University, Prague (thesis).
  15. ^ "Frame narrative". Oxford Reference. Retrieved 7 May 2021.
  16. ^ a b c d Flieger 2005, pp. 67–73 "A great big book with red and black letters"
  17. ^ a b c Turner 2011a, pp. 18–21.
  18. ^ a b c Kullmann 2009, pp. 46–47.

Sources[edit]

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