Hmar Ethnic Cultural Sites
Hmar Ethnic Cultural Sites | |
|---|---|
Location in Pherzawl district | |
 | |
| Coordinates (Pherzawl): 24°15′N 93°11′E / 24.250°N 93.183°E | |
| Country |  India |
The Hmar Ethnic Cultural Sites are a series of ethno-cultural sites of the Hmar people. These sites are located within Pherzawl district,[1] Manipur, India.[2]
Zâwllung[edit]
Zawllung | |
|---|---|
Ethno-Cultural Site | |
  Zawllung Location in Manipur, India  Zawllung Zawllung (India) | |
| Coordinates: 24°08′18″N 93°02′26″E / 24.13826°N 93.04043°E | |
| Country | India |
| State | Manipur |
| District | Pherzawl District |
The Zâwllung, also known as Sikpui Lung, was constructed to accommodate the drummer and chanter during the Sikpui Festival, observed by the Zopui people in 1897. The festival, primarily celebrated by the Hmars, hold significant cultural importance.[3] Situated in the former Zopui village, nestled within the Zopui range, approximately one kilometer above the southern side of present-day Senvawn village, this structure served as a focal point for communal festivities. Founded by Chief Tuola Pulamte, the Zopui village comprised around 60 households. Oral tradition suggests that the Zâwllung (Sikpuilung) was established in 1897, with Ngurpuilal Inbuon (Bawnga pa) serving as Khuongpu Zâilâk during the Sikpui celebrations. Over time, the Zopui village amalgamated with neighboring settlements such as Hmunte, Lohawi, Pamṭhul, and Sâtṭhiek, forming a unified village known as Kâwnzâr, now identified as Senvawn. This geographical location held strategic importance for British military operations.
In 1870, during the British campaign to pacify Mizo chiefs, Senvawn served as a crucial base for the northern column, led by Woodthorpe. Additionally, Senvawn was considered by the missionary William Pettigrew as a potential site for a Christian mission station in the late 19th century.[4] However, due to opposition from local authorities and ongoing tribal conflicts, Pettigrew's plans did not materialize. In 1910, under the leadership of Chief Kamkholun, Welsh missionary Watkin Roberts arrived in Senvawn to spread the teachings of Christianity. This event marked a significant milestone in the village's history, earning it the reputation as the "seedbed of the Gospel" among the Hmar people. The influence of Roberts' mission extended beyond Senvawn, reaching neighboring regions such as South-west Manipur, the Khuga valley, and even areas beyond national borders, such as Tamu in Myanmar and the Chittagong Hill Tracts in Bangladesh.[5][6]
Sikpui Lung (Râlvêngbûk)[edit]
Sikpui Lung (Râlvêngbûk) | |
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Ethno-Cultural Site | |
Sikpui Lung (Râlvêngbûk) Location in Manipur, India Sikpui Lung (Râlvêngbûk) Sikpui Lung (Râlvêngbûk) (India) | |
| Coordinates: 24°23′26″N 93°05′24″E / 24.39048°N 93.08995°E | |
| Country | India |
| State | Manipur |
| District | Pherzawl District |
This Sikpui Lung at Râlvêngbûk near Phulpui, Pherzawl district was erected for the 'drummer' and the 'chanter' of Sikpui song to sit when Sikpui Festival was celebrated by the Râlvêngbûk villagers during Chief Thlurolien Amo's reign in 1904.[7] The mountain where the Sikpui Lung was constructed is situated approximately one kilometer from the present-day Phulpui, within Pherzawl district. Referred to as 'Khawrâwtlâng,' it formerly housed around 20 households. Archeological findings of broken pottery and trivets, crafted from solid rocks, substantiate the historical presence of Hmar ancestors in this locality from 1850 to 1860. The region's significance stems from its strategic positioning, serving as a defensive stronghold during periods of intra- and inter-tribal conflicts. Consequently, it earned the designation 'Râlvêngbûk,' translating to "guard tower" in the local Hmar vernacular.[2]
Kûtpui Lungphun[edit]
The Kutpui Lungphun or literally translated as Kûtpui Stone Post, erected in 1904 alongside the Sikpuilung nearby, holds significance in Râlvêngbûk village, particularly during festivals like Zâwlkêu, Khuonglâwm, and Lâwmpui. These festivals were marked by the tradition of erecting stone posts to commemorate the feasts held at specific locations, making Râlvêngbûk distinctive in this practice. The Sikpufeast, unique to the Hmars in Northeast India, is celebrated in December during years of abundant harvest, known as fapâng râlinsân years. Preparations for the feast involve collecting, winnowing, and husking the previous year's yield to brew rice beer, locally known as zu. During the Sikpui Feast, families bring their share of zu to partake in communal feasting. This communal sharing, termed 'Sikpui,' likely contributes to the festival's name. Additionally, some suggest that the festival's timing during the winter months led to its name. The Sikpui Feast is distinguished not only by its communal aspect but also by the songs and dances that accompany it. Nine distinct Sikpui dances, accompanied by songs collectively known as Sikpui Hla, are performed during the festival. Of these, Sikpui Hlapui (Hla Ser) holds particular reverence, as the Sikpui dance traditionally begins with its rendition.[7][8][9][10] The Sikpui Feast includes various traditional songs and dances, which contribute to its cultural heritage. Nine distinct Sikpui dances are performed, each accompanied by specific songs collectively known as Sikpui Hla. These dances include Buontlaw Hla, Hranthli Hla, Lamtluong Hla, Saia Ketet lam Hla, Simsak Hla, Tangkâwngvâilâk Hla, Inran Hla, Ṭînna Hla, and Hla Vuina (Hla Phumna). Among these, Sikpui Hlapui (Hla Ser) holds particular significance, often marking the initiation of the Sikpui dance.[7][9][11]
Chawnlût Lungphun[edit]
Chawnlût Lungphun | |
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Ethno-Cultural Site | |
Chawnlût Lungphun Location in Manipur, India Chawnlût Lungphun Chawnlût Lungphun (India) | |
| Coordinates: 24°08′17″N 93°02′18″E / 24.13800°N 93.03846°E | |
| Country | India |
| State | Manipur |
| District | Pherzawl District |
This monument was erected to commemorate the achievements of Chawnlût Lungṭâu, who was recognized as a Thangsuo. The 'Thangsuo' title was bestowed upon individuals who demonstrated 'exceptional' hunting skills or performed ceremonial rituals to benefit their community. According to Hmar tradition, Thangsuo were believed to have direct entry into 'paradise.'[2][12] Chawnlût Lungṭâu, son of Thangzangûr from Zopui village, was known as a skilled hunter and warrior, earning the 'prestigious' title by hunting a 'significant' number of wild animals and hosting public feasts. Possessing this title was considered 'a pathway to paradise' in Hmar pre-Christian beliefs. Chawnlût had multiple wives and children, including slaves. The memorial stone was erected to honor Chawnlût's accomplishments as a Thangsuo. It stood at a height of approximately 107 inches, with dimensions of 17 inches thickness and 9 and a half inches breadth. The stone served as a testament to Chawnlût's wealth, displaying his possessions such as four guns, one large gong, and three small gongs. Images on the monument depicted Chawnlût's hunting exploits, including the killing of three elephants and two wild mithuns. One of the mithun's horns remains preserved at the home of his great-great-grandson in Muolvaiphei, Tuiṭhaphâi. Additionally, Chawnlût was credited with taking six enemy heads and capturing a young girl who later became a member of his family. Due to the illiteracy of the Hmars in Zopui village at the time, Chawnlût's name was engraved on the monument by a hired individual from Mizoram, who received a small gong as payment for his services.[13]
Lungsum[edit]
Lungsum | |
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Ethno-Cultural Site | |
Lungsum Location in Manipur, India Lungsum Lungsum (India) | |
| Coordinates: 24°08′18″N 93°02′25″E / 24.13845°N 93.04036°E | |
| Country | India |
| State | Manipur |
| District | Pherzawl District |
This Lungsum (stone-mortar), located in the old Zopui village, was carved from solid rock and traditionally used for husking rice during the Sikpui Festival. Typically, Hmar families couldn't afford such a mortar, leading to the belief that this particular one was crafted specifically for the festival. In ancient times, when the Hmar ancestors began agricultural practices, they commonly used wooden mortars. It's believed that the people of Zopui village created a cavity in a solid flat rock for husking rice during the Sikpui Festival in 1897.[3] This was a labor-intensive process, requiring iron tools and considerable effort to carve into solid rock. It's possible that this type of stone mortar was used for communal purposes like inchawng and Sikpui feasts. During such events, young men and women would come together to perform tasks collectively, including rice husking, as a significant quantity of rice was needed for brewing zu, a traditional alcoholic beverage. Historically, every Hmar family had its own wooden mortar, which they carried with them during their migrations.[10]
Vawmpalung[edit]
Vawmpalung | |
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Ethno-Cultural Site | |
Vawmpalung Location in Manipur, India Vawmpalung Vawmpalung (India) | |
| Coordinates: 24°12′13″N 93°04′53″E / 24.20351°N 93.08137°E | |
| Country | India |
| State | Manipur |
| District | Pherzawl District |
Lal Dena narrates it this way:[14]
This rocky cliff, known as Vawmpalung, holds a tale of two lovers, Vawmpa and Vawmnu, who sought refuge there to share their moments of happiness away from their villages. Tragically, they fell from the cliff and perished together, 'bound forever' even in death. The story begins with a young man named Zakap, residing in Rbudâpzawl village, and a beautiful woman named Zosiel from nearby Lohawi village. Despite Zakap's dark complexion, he was affectionately called Vawmpa. Zakap and Zosiel were deeply in love, but their relationship became the subject of village gossip, causing distress to Zosiel's family and jealousy among the young men of Lohawi. Despite warnings and violence from the villagers, Zakap continued to visit Zosiel, further fueling her affection for him. In desperation, Zakap and Zosiel decided to flee and seek refuge at the high cliff now known as Vawmpalung. Here, they enjoyed moments of intimacy, sometimes sitting atop the flat stone under the moonlight. The cliff's unique features, including two protruding flat rocks and a deep chasm between them, became the backdrop of their shared experiences. Legends speak of their jumping competitions and a flat rock resembling a bed where they spent nights together. A hole in the cliff once held Zakap's gun. Despite their attempts to remain hidden, their love couldn't endure separation. Tragically, they chose to end their lives by jumping from the protruding flat rock, forever uniting in death. Today, Vawmpalung stands as a 'testament' to their 'enduring' love, much like the Taj Mahal of Agra.
Sârtuinêk and Hringtuinêk[edit]
Sârtuinêk[edit]
Saituinek | |
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Ethno-Cultural Site | |
Saituinek Location in Manipur, India Saituinek Saituinek (India) | |
| Coordinates: 24°17′13″N 93°02′10″E / 24.28703°N 93.03603°E | |
| Country | India |
| State | Manipur |
| District | Pherzawl District |
Sârtuinêk is a pond believed by the Hmars to be associated with the spirits of individuals who died in circumstances deemed 'unnatural'. The nearby village is referred to as Sârtuinêk village in accordance with this belief. In Hmar tradition, deaths are categorized into two types: sârthi (unnatural) and thi pangngâi (natural). Sârthi deaths encompass accidents such as falling from a tree, drowning, murder, suicide, and death caused by wild animals. It is believed that the spirits of those who died unnatural deaths pass through this pond, known as Sârtuinêk, where they purportedly drink its water. Consequently, the village is named after this pond. Subsequently, according to tradition, the spirits continue their journey towards Mithikhuo (world of the dead) via Thlânpielkawt near Khawlêk in Mizoram.[15]
Hringtuinêk[edit]
Hringtuinek | |
|---|---|
Ethno-Cultural Site | |
Hringtuinek Location in Manipur, India Hringtuinek Hringtuinek (India) | |
| Coordinates: 24°17′12″N 93°05′46″E / 24.28677°N 93.09598°E | |
| Country | India |
| State | Manipur |
| District | Pherzawl District |
Hringtuinêk is a pond believed to be associated with the spirits of individuals who died natural deaths, according to the beliefs of the Hmar people in the pre-Christian era. They held the belief that all spirits of those who passed away from natural causes, including deaths at birth, would pass through this pond and drink its water. Consequently, the pond is named Hringtuinêk. Following this ritual, the spirits would proceed to Thlânpielkawt near Khawlêk in Mizoram, continuing their journey towards Mithikhuo (world of the dead). It was believed that before the Hmar people embraced Christianity, only the spirits of Thangsuos were granted direct entry into pielrâl, a concept akin to paradise.[15]
Pastor Thangngur Ṭawngṭâina Pûk[edit]
Pastor Thangngur Ṭawngṭâina Pûk | |
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Ethno-Cultural Site | |
Pastor Thangngur Ṭawngṭâina Pûk Location in Manipur, India Pastor Thangngur Ṭawngṭâina Pûk Pastor Thangngur Ṭawngṭâina Pûk (India) | |
| Coordinates: 24°23′10″N 93°05′46″E / 24.38611°N 93.09598°E | |
| Country | India |
| State | Manipur |
| District | Pherzawl District |
Historical Background of Thangngur[edit]
Thangngur, born in 1891, was a 'significant' figure among the Hmar people, particularly known for his conversion to Christianity in 1910. Employed as a teacher-evangelist and later ordained as a pastor, he played various roles within the church, eventually becoming the Field Superintendent of the Independent Church in 1943. He passed away on December 20, 1943. Born in Laileng, Mizoram, Thangngur's family later moved to Senvawn, a pivotal location for the early spread of Christianity in the region. His encounter with Watkin Roberts, a missionary, led to his conversion and subsequent education in a basic school.[16][2]
In Hmar Bungpui Pastor Thangngur (A biography on Thangngur), it is written as follows:
Despite the challenges of balancing work and studies, Thangngur persevered, dedicating himself to learning. Thangngur's journey included employment as a teacher-evangelist and significant involvement in the Independent Church, which faced challenges and opposition, particularly from H.H. Coleman. Despite offers of comfort and stability from Coleman, Thangngur remained loyal to his beliefs, leading to personal hardships but unwavering faith. In 1932, Thangngur relocated to Phulpui, where he experienced profound spiritual encounters, shaping his prolific hymn-writing and strengthening his resolve. Despite facing poverty and trials, his faith remained steadfast, exemplified by his willingness to share his meager resources with others in need. His hymns, infused with deep spiritual insights and reflections on life's struggles and triumphs, continue to inspire and resonate across communities. Thangngur's experiences, including encounters with Jesus and divine interventions, are woven into his hymns, which reflect themes of faith, perseverance, and the enduring love of God. Thangngur's legacy lives on through his hymns, which transcend linguistic and cultural boundaries, uniting believers in worship and celebration. His life, marked by dedication to his faith and service to others, serves as a testament to the enduring power of spirituality and the human spirit.[17]
— John H. Pulamte, Hmar Bungpui Pastor Thangngur (2011)
Pastor Thangngur Ṭawngṭâina Pûk[edit]
Translated as "Pastor Thangngur's Prayer Cave." It is located in Phulpui, Pherzawl district. Lalthlamuong Keivom wrote:
Deprived of his teaching position, Thangngur migrated to his own village, Phulpui in 1932. There he had a daily rendezvous with God in what came to be known as his prayer cave today about a furlong from the village where he prayed regularly. It was here in Phulpui that angels reportedly visited him several times and introduced him to the spiritual world beyond the realm of material consciousness. He vividly depicted some of his enthralling experiences in his crystal choral piece Jordan ral (Beyond Jordan). Major bulk of his works flowed out from here making this insignificant village a preponderant place in the Independent Church history. He achieved his spiritual as well as poetic heights from this humble place.[18]
— L. Keivom & David Buhril, Biethu: Selected Writings of Keivom & Buhril (2020)
Lungthu Lien Pathum[edit]
The large trivets, erected by the ancestors of the Hmar people, stand on the outskirts of present-day Lungthulien village, believed to have been constructed around 1852.[2] Originally, the Hmar ancestors settled in Khurpui village before relocating to what is now Lungthulien village, which derived its name from these significant structures. Led by figures such as Ngurzika, Ngurthanga, Kalphunga, Hrangkapa, and Khuonghmuna, the Hmar forefathers briefly resided in Ibudâpzâwl, near the present Lungthulien village, before seeking a more favorable settlement location. They eventually settled in Khurpui, attracted by the presence of a perennial water pond. During their time in Khurpui, around 1852, the Hmar ancestors erected three large trivets, each weighing more than four or five mounds. These trivets were likely intended to symbolize the strength and stature of the Hmar ancestors, with stories recounting the legendary strength of individuals like Khuplal Sawngate of Parbung,[19] who reputedly could effortlessly lift and reposition the trivets. The construction of these trivets served as a marker of the Hmar presence in the region. Over time, as the Hmar community interacted with the British in the late 18th century, some clans settled in Hmunte, situated between Senvawn and Lungthulien. By 1924, a significant number of Hmar clans, alongside Singson clans of the Thado tribes, migrated to Kâwnzâr, later known as Senvawn. Concurrently, another group of Hmarclans joined their kin who had already established themselves in Lungthulien village.[13]
Bibliography[edit]
Vernacular Sources[edit]
- Darneilal Kholum, Senvawn Chanchin, 1896–2006, Churachandpur, 2010.
- Chawngsangvung Pangote, Senvawn Chanchin.
- Darthangluoi Faihriem, Sikpui Ruoi (Winter Festival the Hmars), Diphu, 2002.
- Hranglien Songate, Hmar Chanchin. 1977.
- Hmar Ṭobul Nun
- Pulamte, John H. (2011). Hmar Bungpui Pastor Thangngur.
- Phulpui Gospel Centenary, 2020.
- Thangsawihmang's (unpublished MSS); Some places of Historical importance in Pherzawl District, Pherzawl.
- H. V. Vara, Hmar Hla Hlui (The Hmar Folk Dinga, Lyrics and Chants), Churachandpur, 1967.
- Lallungawi & V. K. Pangamte, Edited, Hnam Ro-2, Hmar Writers' Club, Churachandpur, 2023.
- L.Keivom & David Buhril, Biethu: Selected Writings of Keivom & Buhril, Sinlung Academy of Letters, 2020.
- Lienzathang, Parbung Chanchin.
- Pastor Chawilien, Lalkhawlien Pulamte & L. Kiemlo Pulamte, Leiri-Changsan Pahnam Chanchin, Churachandpur, 2020.
Ethnographical Interviews[edit]
- Field reports of RWUS Staff members.
- Lienzuol Shunate's oral information.
- Oral Sources Collected through some selected Village Authority members of Lungthulien, Parbung & Senvawn.
- Personal Interview with Thangsawihmang Sawngte (87), Muolhlum, Rengkai.
- Personal Interview with Kama (93), Bethel, Churachandpur.
References[edit]
- ^ "Culture & Heritage | Pherzawl District | India". Retrieved 2024-04-29.
- ^ a b c d e Songate, Hranglien L. (1977). Hmar Chanchin. L. Rokung.
- ^ a b Faihriem, Darthangluoi (2002). Sikpui Ruoi (Winter Festival of the Hmars). Churachandpur.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ Ngaihte, Samuel G; Paulianding, Reuben (2022). Christianity and Empire in South Manipur Hills: Senvon Encounter and the Dialogic Zo Peoples. 1517 Media. ISBN 978-1-5064-8892-9.
- ^ Pangote, Chawngsangvung. Senvawn Chanchin.
- ^ Kholum, Darneilal (2010). Senvawn Chanchin 1896-2006. Churachandpur.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ a b c ASSAM INSTITUTE OF RESEARCH FOR TRIBALS AND SCHEDULED CASTES. "Ethnographic Report On The Hmars of Assam" (PDF). TRIBAL DIGITAL DOCUMENT REPOSITORY.
- ^ Gauhati High Court. ""Sikpui Ruoi" as a restricted holiday" (PDF). Retrieved 30 April 2024.
- ^ a b Malsawmliana (2019). "A Typological Classification of Megaliths of Mizoram" (PDF). Journal of Neolithic Archaeology.
- ^ a b Varte, Immanuel (2016). "Revisited: Sikpui Ruoi of the Hmar Tribe". Anthropology Today. 1.
- ^ Dena, Lal (2008). In Search of Identity: Hmars of North East India. Akansha Publishing House.
- ^ Hmar Ṭobul Nun.
- ^ a b Thangsawihmang. (unpublished MSS) Some places of Historical importance in Pherzawl District, Pherzawl.
- ^ Field reports of RWUS Staff members.
- ^ a b "Legendary Hringtuinek River in Hmar Hills - HMARRAM". 2014-05-31. Retrieved 2024-04-29.
- ^ Phulpui Gospel Centenary Souvenir. 2020.
- ^ Pulamte, John H. (2011). Hmar Bungpui Pastor Thangngur.
- ^ Keivom, L, and David Buhril (2020). Biethu: Selected Writings of Keivom & Buhril. Sinlung Academy of Letters.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Lienzathang. Parbung Chanchin.