Akademset

Academset planned structure

Akademset (Russian: Академсеть, Academic Network), or All-Union Academic network — was a computer network for providing digital connection of scientific and civil institutions across the USSR, that was established in 1978. In fact, it was a Soviet forerunner to the Internet and had a connection with ARPANET and other western analogues using the common digital standard called X.25. After dissolution of the Soviet Union it was re-created under the name ROKSON (РОКСОН), and nowadays its surviving components may be considered as a local area network within the Runet and the Internet.

Creation and development

LVC

In 1974 in Leningrad, at the Ioffe Physical-Technical Institute, a computing subdivision was established that was entitled Leningrad Computing Center (ЛВЦ/LVC) of the Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union (АН СССР/AN SSSR). The main goal of LVC was the creation of the Computing Center for Collective Use (ВЦКП/VCKP) for staff of all of the institutions (over 40) of the Leningrad Scientific Center (ЛНЦ/LNC). It was proven effective, that was specially remarked by AN SSSR and the authorities of the city and the country, and by the end of 1977 the VCKP was used by over 15 city's scientific institutions, that exploited computer performance of the Center. Following that, the Presidium of the AN SSSR asked the Government of the Soviet Union to convert LVC into the Leningrad Research Computer Center (ЛНИВЦ/LNIVC) that was founded on January 19, 1978. Non-academic institutions, including factories, began to join its computing network. The network became known as ИВСКП/IVSKP — "Information and computing system for collective use".

LNIVC was in fact functioning as a central node of the forming city-wide computer network which began to be called LIVSAN/ЛИВСАН — "Leningrad information-computer network of the AN" (SSSR). In 1979 scientists at the AN considered it to be a success and began planning such network country-wide under the name Akademset. In 1978 LNIVC was reformed into an institution nowadays known as St. Petersburg Institute for Informatics and Automation of the Russian Academy of Sciences.

In 1982 in Moscow, a dedicated research institution, VNIIPAS, was established to serve as the central node of the Akademset with the abroad X.25 connection to Austria to International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis. Links to most of "socialist countries" were also established, including satellite ones to Cuba, Mongolia and Vietnam.

NATO study

In 1986 in Brussels, a NATO analysis was published, entitled "The Status of Soviet Civil Science". It contained a dedicated section about Akademset, including its planned all-Union scheme. It was stated that "the first phase of the network was accepted for operation in 1986 by a governmental commission, including about 55 interactive computers". The book also reads:

"The initial problems encountered in building Akademset’ have stemmed from the communications and hardware limitations ... For instance, in order to achieve high speeds using a protocol such as OSI, it is necessary to have sufficient main memory in order to pass packets and headers from level to level ... Shortages of communications peripherals remain, and the cost of leased lines remains high ... These problems can be solved largely by better hardware. More serious is the absence of trained personnel at the centers that are supposed to be connected to Akademset’." <...>
"Will the Communist Party of the USSR (CPSU) permit electronic mail? On the surface, it would appear to amount to electronic publishing without censorship, because messages could be sent practically instantaneously to a large number of users. However, the CPSU may also view electronic mail as nothing more than a faster version of regular mail. It would be possible to delay the delivery of some messages while they were checked, to use random searches, and to monitor all transactions by individuals under surveillance. The interference could be crude enough that most users would be aware of it and would practice self-censorship, particularly in communications with foreigners. The party could reap the benefit of more efficient communications without a substantial threat of increased activity by dissidents."

Hudson study

USA's Hudson Institute published a research of Akademset in 1989. It emphasizes resemblance of Akademset to early ARPANET and also reads:

"The general architecture of Akademset' is that of a meta-network of regional networks . The various regional networks, in turn, are presently divided into two "zones": the working zone and the experimental zone. The latter is developmental in nature and the place where new network solutions are tried and tested after which, in theory, the accepted designs are passed to industry for production and implementation in the working zone. Among the basic architectural solutions already accepted for Akademset' is the decision to make it an open, packet switching network with a modified ISO X .25 layer protocol implemented throughout . Users are to have access, from their individual terminals, " ...to all information resources (data banks, information systems, mathematical models, computer capabilities, etc .)"

Further developments

Akademset' was a computer network developed in the Soviet Union during the 1980s to interconnect the institutes of the USSR Academy of Sciences. The network aimed to provide Soviet scientists with access to computing resources, databases, and electronic communication tools that were becoming increasingly prevalent in Western scientific communities. Akademset' was designed as a packet-switched network using the X.25 protocol and consisted of a backbone connecting major cities across the Soviet Union, with regional networks serving local academic institutions.

The development of Akademset' began in 1979, with the Institute of Electronic Computing Technology (IEVT) in Riga playing a significant role in its design and implementation. The network's services included access to powerful computers in scientific centers like Moscow and Leningrad, databases maintained by institutions such as the All-Union Institute of Scientific and Technical Information (VINITI), and limited electronic communication capabilities.

Despite its pioneering role in Soviet networking, Akademset' faced numerous challenges and limitations, including the inadequate telecommunications infrastructure, shortage of hardware and trained personnel, and organizational barriers. The network established international connections with other CMEA countries and limited links to Western networks, but its overall impact on scientific collaboration and information exchange remained limited compared to its Western counterparts like ARPANET.

Development and Planning

The development of Akademset' began with early planning stages in 1979, when the Commission on Collective Use Computing Centers and Computer Networks of the Coordination Committee of the USSR Academy of Sciences proposed creating a network to connect the academies of sciences of the USSR and the union republics.

The Institute of Electronic Computing Technology (IEVT) in Riga played a significant role in the research and development of Akademset'. IEVT was responsible for designing the network's structure, protocols, and hardware components, such as the microprocessor-based network adapters used in the packet-switching nodes.

The implementation of Akademset' was carried out in phases. The first phase, which became operational in 1985, connected the cities of Moscow, Leningrad, and Riga. This initial stage demonstrated the feasibility of the network's design and laid the foundation for further expansion to other regions of the Soviet Union.

As the network grew, subsequent phases saw the inclusion of additional cities and research centers, gradually extending the reach of Akademset' to major scientific hubs across the country. By 1986, the network had expanded to include approximately 55 interactive computers, with plans for further growth in the following years.

Network Architecture and Technology

Akademset' was designed as a packet-switched network using the X.25 protocol, which was the first international standard for computer networks. The choice of X.25 allowed for potential interconnection with foreign networks, but also posed challenges due to the need for specialized hardware and software, as well as high-quality communication channels.

The network's hardware consisted of packet-switching nodes based on DEC-like equipment, such as the SM-4 computers, which were Soviet PDP-11 compatible minicomputers. These nodes were equipped with microprocessor network adapters developed by IEVT, enabling them to communicate using the X.25 protocol. The SM-4 computers could support up to 10 lines with speeds ranging from 2400 bps to 9600 bps, handling a switching rate of 33 packets per second and 200 virtual connections.

In the early stages of Akademset', communication lines were relatively slow compared to Western standards. In 1985, the transmission rate between Riga, Moscow, and Leningrad was only 300 baud, with plans to increase it to 1200 bps in the near future. These low speeds were due to the limited availability and quality of the Soviet telecommunication infrastructure.

The topology of Akademset' consisted of a backbone network connecting major cities across the Soviet Union, including Moscow, Sverdlovsk, Tashkent, Leningrad, Riga, Kiev, Novosibirsk, Khabarovsk, and Vladivostok. Each of these cities hosted a switching node that served as a hub for regional networks, connecting local Academy of Sciences institutes and research centers. This hierarchical structure allowed for the efficient distribution of resources and information across the vast expanse of the Soviet Union.

Services and Applications

Akademset' was designed to provide Soviet scientists with access to various services and applications that would facilitate research, collaboration, and information sharing. One of the primary services offered by the network was access to computing resources. Powerful computers located in major scientific centers, such as Moscow, Leningrad, and Novosibirsk, could be accessed remotely by researchers across the country. This allowed scientists to utilize the processing power and storage capacity of these machines for their computational needs, regardless of their physical location.

Another key service provided by Akademset' was access to databases and information resources. The All-Union Institute of Scientific and Technical Information (VINITI) maintained extensive databases covering a wide range of scientific disciplines, which were made accessible through the network. Other institutions, such as the Institute of Scientific Information on the Social Sciences (INION) and the State Public Science and Technology Library, also provided access to their databases via Akademset'.

Electronic communication services, although limited compared to Western networks, were also available on Akademset'. Electronic mail (email) was implemented to some extent, allowing researchers to exchange messages and collaborate more efficiently. However, the use of email was not as widespread as in Western scientific communities, partly due to the isolated nature of the Soviet scientific community and the limited access to personal computers and modems.

Computer conferencing, a more advanced form of electronic communication, was also explored on Akademset'. The ADONIS system, developed at the Institute of Automation and Control Processes (IAPU) in Vladivostok, provided a platform for online discussions and information exchange among researchers. However, the adoption of computer conferencing was limited, and its impact on scientific collaboration remained modest.

Challenges and Limitations

The development and widespread adoption of Akademset' faced numerous challenges and limitations, both technical and organizational in nature. One of the primary technical challenges was the quality and reliability of the Soviet telecommunications infrastructure. The existing telephone network was often inadequate for data transmission, with low-quality lines and limited bandwidth. This hindered the performance and reliability of the network, especially when connecting geographically distant nodes.

Another technical challenge was the limited availability of hardware components, such as modems, terminals, and peripheral devices. The Soviet computer industry struggled to produce sufficient quantities of these devices, which were essential for the expansion and effective utilization of Akademset'. This shortage of hardware often led to delays in connecting new nodes and users to the network.

Organizational and administrative challenges also played a significant role in the development of Akademset'. Interdepartmental coordination and cooperation were often difficult, as different ministries and institutions had their own priorities and bureaucratic constraints. This lack of coordination hindered the smooth integration of various research institutions into the network and limited the potential for resource sharing and collaboration.

The lack of trained personnel for network support and maintenance was another significant challenge. The Soviet educational system had not yet adapted to the demands of the rapidly evolving field of computer science and networking, resulting in a shortage of qualified specialists to manage and troubleshoot the network infrastructure.

Usage and adoption challenges also limited the impact of Akademset'. The Soviet scientific community was relatively isolated, with limited exposure to international research trends and a strong tradition of working independently. This isolation, combined with the limited access to personal computers and modems, hindered the widespread adoption of network services such as electronic mail and computer conferencing.

Despite these challenges and limitations, Akademset' represented a significant step forward in the development of computer networking in the Soviet Union. It laid the foundation for future networks and demonstrated the potential benefits of electronic communication and resource sharing in the scientific community.

International Connections

Although Akademset' was primarily designed to serve the Soviet scientific community, efforts were made to establish international connections with other computer networks, particularly those in other member countries of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA or CEMA). These connections aimed to foster scientific collaboration and information exchange beyond the borders of the Soviet Union.

Akademset' established links with several CEMA countries, including Bulgaria, Hungary, the German Democratic Republic (GDR), Cuba, Mongolia, Poland, and Czechoslovakia. These connections allowed researchers from these countries to access the resources and services provided by Akademset', as well as enabling Soviet scientists to tap into the knowledge and expertise of their CEMA counterparts.

In addition to the CEMA connections, Akademset' also sought to establish links with Western networks and databases. The All-Union Institute for Applied Automated Systems (VNIIPAS) in Moscow played a crucial role in facilitating these international connections. VNIIPAS served as a gateway for accessing Western networks such as TELENET and TYMNET in the United States, TRANSPAC in France, and DATAPAC in Canada. These links allowed Soviet researchers to access a wide range of international databases and information resources.

However, the extent and effectiveness of these international connections were limited by various factors, including technical compatibility issues, political considerations, and the overall isolation of the Soviet scientific community. The flow of information was often unidirectional, with Soviet researchers accessing Western resources but limited reciprocal access granted to Western researchers.

Despite these limitations, the international connections established through Akademset' represented an important step towards integrating Soviet science into the global research community. They laid the groundwork for future international collaborations and demonstrated the potential benefits of cross-border scientific cooperation in the digital age.

Comparison to Western Scientific Networks

When compared to its Western counterparts, such as the ARPANET in the United States and other academic networks in Europe, Akademset' exhibited both similarities and significant differences in terms of capabilities, performance, and usage patterns.

One of the primary differences between Akademset' and Western scientific networks was the speed and reliability of the underlying infrastructure. ARPANET, which was established in 1969, benefited from the more advanced and reliable telecommunications infrastructure in the United States. This allowed for higher data transmission speeds and better network performance compared to Akademset', which had to contend with the limitations of the Soviet telephone network.

Another significant difference was the level of technological advancement and the availability of computing resources. Western scientific networks had access to more powerful computers, a greater variety of hardware and software, and a larger pool of trained personnel to support and maintain the network infrastructure. In contrast, Akademset' had to rely on Soviet-manufactured computers and peripherals, which often lagged behind their Western counterparts in terms of performance and capabilities.

The usage patterns and the level of user engagement also differed between Akademset' and Western scientific networks. In the United States and Europe, networks like ARPANET and JANET (Joint Academic Network) in the United Kingdom fostered a culture of collaboration and information sharing among researchers. Electronic mail and computer conferencing were widely adopted, enabling scientists to communicate and collaborate effectively across institutional and geographical boundaries.

In contrast, the Soviet scientific community was more isolated and less accustomed to the concept of open information sharing. The use of electronic communication tools, such as email and computer conferencing, was less prevalent on Akademset' compared to Western networks. This was partly due to the limited access to personal computers and modems, as well as the prevailing research culture in the Soviet Union, which emphasized individual work over collaboration.

Despite these differences, Akademset' and Western scientific networks shared the common goal of facilitating scientific research and enabling the sharing of knowledge and resources. Both represented pioneering efforts in the application of computer networking technologies to support the advancement of science and technology in their respective countries.

See also

• OGAS
• St. Petersburg Institute for Informatics and Automation of the Russian Academy of Sciences
• Cybernetics in the Soviet Union
• Internet in Russia

References

• Judy, Richard; Clough, Robert (1989). "Soviet Computer Software and Applications in the 1980s" (PDF). National Council for Eurasian and East European Research / The Implications of the Information Revolution for Soviet Society / Hudson Institute. Retrieved 10 April 2021.
• Goodman, Seymour; McHenry, William; Wolcott, Peter (1989). "Scientific Computing in the Soviet Union". Computers in Physics. 3: 39. doi:10.1063/1.4822814. Retrieved 10 April 2021.